Human gastrointestinal microbiome modulating composition and methods of use

ABSTRACT

A formulation to increase the ratio of gastrointestinal microbiota in phylum Bacteroidetes to microbiota of Firmicutes phylum preferably includes about 20-60 mg/kg of body weight of fermentable fiber, about 10-30 mg/kg of body weight of beta glucan and about 20-60 mg/kg of body weight of blueberry extracts or any fruit or berry ingredient preparation containing similar phenolics. This formulation is preferably used to control body weight, body composition, and blood glucose regulation, preferably in humans, and is preferably administered orally, preferably twice per day.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present Application is a Divisional Application, which claims priority to U.S. application Ser. No. 14/238,980, filed on Jun. 5, 2014, which is a U.S. National Stage Application pursuant to 35 U.S.C. § 371 of International Application No. PCT/US2012/051408, filed on Aug. 17, 2012, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/524,524, filed on Aug. 17, 2011, each of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The present invention relates to weigh control and metabolic fitness. More particularly, the present invention relates to compositions and methods for increasing desirable microbiota in the human gut and reducing therein undesirable microbiota to achieve a healthy glucose regulation, metabolic fitness, inclusive intestinal health, and a healthy body weight.

2. General Background of the Invention

During the past 5 years a large international effort, called the an Microbiome Project (HMP) by the National Institutes of Health, and known more broadly as the International Human Microbiome Consortium (IHMC), is aimed at characterizing the microbes living in and on our bodies (see http://hmpdacc.org/data_browser.php). In the large intestine an estimated 100 trillion microorganisms reside that appear to play essential roles in metabolizing food, drugs, and dietary supplements that are not absorbed by the upper gastrointestinal (GI) tract. In addition, some of those microorganisms manufacture essential nutrients and vitamins necessary to sustain health. Such microbial interactions in the intestinal environment exert critical roles in signaling metabolic-, behavior-, and immune-regulatory systems of the human host.

The first GI microbiomes to be partially characterized are those obtained in the feces of obese and lean individuals (1, 2). Microbiota of the Firmicutes phylum are in abundance in the feces of obese individuals when compared to that of lean volunteers. Microbiota of the other major division, Bacteroidetes, are more abundant than those of Firmicutes division in lean individuals. Thus, during metabolic diseases such as obesity and diabetes, an imbalance between these 2 dominant groups of bacteria reflecting a wealth of Firmuctes species to Bacteroidetes species (B:F ratio) is one characteristic of individuals with an unhealthy body mass. These findings are confirmed in obese and lean mice (3). Further, sterile mice can be inoculated with microbiomes obtained from human feces of either obese or lean individuals. When fed a standard mouse chow, they either become obese or remain lean depending on the source of their GI microbiota transplant (4). Mice transplanted with human GI microbiota will become obese when fed a chow rich in simple sugars and fat after several weeks. The B:F ratio of those mice is increased when the diet is switched to one low in both fat and sugar but rich in plant polysaccharides (5, 6).

Microbiota belonging to the Bacteriodetes phylum are specialists at transporting and metabolizing carbohydrates (7). They appear to forage on any available carbohydrate in their environment. Most sugars and starches, however, are metabolized by the host and are absorbed by the upper GI. Indigestible (by the host) carbohydrates do make it to the lower GI where they are consumed by members of the Bacteriodetes. The end products of this process are small chain fatty acids (SCFAs) that have health benefits for the host. Many of these indigestible carbohydrates are plant polysaccharides or more commonly called fiber or resistant starch and are classified as prebiotics (8). Microbiomes characterized in the feces of children maintained on a high fiber diet have a greater B:F ratio than those analyzed from feces of children consuming a typical European diet (9).

The following U.S. and other patent documents are incorporated herein by reference:

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BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention includes a composition and use of a formulation to increase the ratio of gastrointestinal microbiota in phylum Bacteroidetes to microbiota of Firmicutes phylum.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

For a further understanding of the nature, objects, and advantages of the present invention, reference should be had to the following detailed description, read in conjunction with the following drawings, wherein:

FIG. 1 shows fasting blood glucose levels for 60 days of treatment; and

FIG. 2 shows fasting blood glucose levels for 60 days of treatment divided into 10 day periods.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

One aspect of the present invention is to include an indigestible carbohydrate such as inulin, oligofructoses, fructo-oligosaccharides, lactulose, galeto-oligosaccharides, xylo-oligosaccharides, resistant starches, in the formula. In addition to offering food for species of Bacteriodetes and selecting for their growth, production of short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in the colon will suppress pathogenic bacteria and viruses from invading and colonizing the GI tract, partially inhibit hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis, serve as nutrients for colonocytes, reduce colon pH, increase mineral absorption, and serve as ligands to stimulate release of peptide YY (PYY) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) into the blood, PYY and GLP-1 are hormones produced and released from the colon into the blood. PYY signals satiety. GLP-1 stimulates the glucose sensing ability of the insulin secreting cell, prevents that cell from apoptosis, stimulates proliferation of those pancreatic beta cells and inhibits gastric emptying. GLP-1 also stimulates satiety but this may be due to its important role in decreasing gastric emptying.

Ghrelin is a hormone secreted by the stomach that stimulates appetite. Ghrelin is unique because it must be acylated with a medium chain fatty acid (MCFA) on the 3rd residue to bind and trigger its receptor (GHS-R1a) (10). Ghrelin comprised with octanoic (C-8)- or decanoic (C-10)-MCFAs are the most common forms of active ghrelin (10). There are also circulating carboxylesterases that cleave the acyl bond linking the fatty acid to the ghrelin backbone and render ghrelin inactive (11) with respect to appetite and nutrient consumption but may be beneficial for the treatment of T2DM (12). The acylating enzyme in the stomach cell that synthesizes ghrelin was identified about 3 years ago (13, 14) and is now a drug target for several groups. The enzyme termed GOAT (ghrelin O-acyltransferase), has a high affinity for MCFAs but can acetylate ghrelin with fatty acids of different lengths. Not only does GOAT prefer MCFAs, but ghrelin that is acylated with a MCFA is much more potent than ghrelin forced to be synthesized with either a small or long chain fatty acid (15). Interestingly, levels of circulating medium chain fatty acids at any time point are relatively low when compared to long chain fatty acids. This is primarily a result of diet. Modern diets and most foods are rich in long chain fatty acids. MCFAs are abundant in coconut oil and human breast milk. Short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) are also rarely in the food chain; they can be found in small quantities in butter and coconut. However, they are produced in large quantities by the microflora in the colon as a byproduct of polysaccharide consumption by the microbiota of the Bacteriodetes division. Recent evidence indicates that GOAT can use a SOFA to acylate ghrelin, rendering the hormone inactive at its receptor (16).

Thus, another novel aspect of the present invention is a formula designed to significantly enhance production of SCFAs by microbiota to serve as substrates for GOAT, render an inactive ghrelin and consequently decrease appetite.

While aspects of the present invention are aimed at increasing the population of colonic microbiota that garners carbohydrates, there is the possibility of those microorganisms redirecting their carbohydrate-harvesting activities from dietary to host polysaccharides according to nutrient availability (7). The colon mucus layer is comprised of mucins, which are glycoproteins that have O-linked oligosaccharides or O-glycans, which account for up to 80% of the mass of mucin (17). This mucus layer covers the gastrointestinal epithelium where it provides a protective layer from the rich intestinal microbiome as well as any pathogens. Such endogenous source of glycans in the microbiome habitat could offer alternative nutrients. However, when dietary glycans are present, it appears that harvesting energy from the diet is preferred (7).

Recently, evidence that bile salts are bacteriostatic to cecal microbiota was presented (24). Moreover, the data indicate that microbiota of the Bacteroidetes phylum are most sensitive to bile salts. Secretion of bile salts into the intestinal tract is stimulated by fat ingestion. Thus, ingestion of fat containing food increases bile secretion, which in turn decreases the numbers of Bacteriodetes microbiota. Viscous beta-glucan encapsulates or sequesters bile acids (25) and thus has the ability to preserve members of the Bacteroidetes, even when fat is ingested.

Thus, an important aspect of the present invention includes dietary glycans. Most are indigestible carbohydrates. Since glycans are also in abundance in yeast walls, one source of dietary glycans is from yeast. Other sources include dietary beta-glucan. Beta-glucan is a natural polysaccharide that can be isolated from oat, barley and wheat most commonly, but also from baker's yeast, certain fungi, mushrooms, and bacteria. Addition of beta-glucan is an important component of the present invention to maintain the mucosa protective barrier as well as to offer nutrients to microbiota that prefer to forage on carbohydrates and would increase the B:F ratio.

Another means to alter an imbalance between microbiota belonging to Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes phyla is to suppress the growth of members of one division. Such bacteriostatic or bactericidal actions for members of Firmicutes division are reported for a number of phenolic compounds that are present in large quantities in berries and other fruits (18). Anthocyanins are the predominating group of phenolic compounds present in berries and are especially abundant (18). A large proportion of dietary polyphenolics remain unabsorbed in the gut lumen where they become concentrated in the ileum and colon. Up to 85% of blueberry anthocyanins enter the colon (19) and appear to exert more growth suppressing effects on members of the Firmicutes division than the Bacteroidetes division (20, 21). Although blueberry powder, blueberry pomace, or blueberry extract containing such polyphenolics is preferred, the present invention preferably includes any fruit or berry ingredient preparation containing similar phenolics such as those listed in Reference 18. The three preferred classes of ingredients, fermentable polysaccharides, beta-glucans, and berry extracts, can be prepared in any type of edible product such as powder to mix in liquid, a bar, smoothie, yogurt, shake, etc. The blend may also be prepared in a capsule or compressed into a tablet. Preferably, the formulation is to be ingested twice per day in between the first and second meals as well as between the second and third meals.

It is preferred that each dose of the formulation contain at least about 42 of indigestible polysaccharide, at least about 2 g beta-glucan and at least about 4 g of berry powder extract (the equivalent of 2 cups (16 ounces) or 0.47 liters whole blueberries containing about 800 mg of total phenolics, 100 mg of anthocyanins and 6900 μmoles TE antioxidant activity). It is preferred that the dose be administered twice per day within 1 hour prior to meal 1 or within 1 hour prior to meal 2, as well as within 1 hour prior to meal 3. These are our best estimates but the formulation may change.

Ranges of ingredients preferably include about 2-120 mg/kg of body weight of indigestible polysaccharide, about 2-80 mg/kg of body weight of beta-glucan and about 2-120 mg/kg of body weight of blueberry powdered extract or any fruit or berry ingredient preparation containing similar phenolics such as those listed in Reference 18. Ranges of these ingredients more preferably include about 10-80 mg/kg of body weight of indigestible polysaccharide, about 5-50 mg/kg of body weight of beta-glucan and about 10-80 mg/kg of body weight of blueberry powder or any fruit or berry ingredient preparation containing similar phenolics such as those listed in Reference 18. Ranges of these ingredients most preferably include about 20-60 mg/kg of body weight of indigestible polysaccharide that is a fermentable fiber or resistant starch, about 10-30 mg/kg of body weight of beta-glucan and about 20-60-320 mg/kg of body weight of blueberry powdered extract or any fruit or berry ingredient preparation containing similar phenolics such as those listed in Reference 18. One of these ingredients in a formulation is preferable to none, any two are preferable to only one, and most preferably all three are present in a formulation of the present invention that contains less than 70 usable Calories (Cal or kcal) (293 Kilojoules). The calorie or joule content of the formulation can be calculated from derived constants determined for macronutrients in the formula. However, the majority of ingredients in the formula is not digested and absorbed and thus is not assimilated or utilized for energy in the human body. A usable calorie or joule is only the calorie or joule that is assimilated or utilized for energy in the human body.

A preferred indigestible carbohydrate is inulin and can be found naturally in banana, asparagus, garlic, onions and wheat flour at low levels. To consume a sufficient quantity to achieve levels in the most preferred dose is possible but that would contribute significant usable calories or joules to the daily calorie intake of individuals who already have an unhealthy weight (see Table below) because the foods also contains usable calories or joules. Inulin content of raw Jerusalem artichoke, chicory root, and agave is high. Ingestion of a purified preparation of inulin contributes significantly less usable calories or joules to daily calorie intake than does ingestion of a vegetable containing inulin (see Table 1). To obtain the desired dose of inulin by eating the more common vegetable would contribute about 40—times the calories or joules that purified inulin contributes.

TABLE 1 Quantity and Calorie or Kilojoule Content for Preferred Dose of Indigestible Carbohydrate Ingredient Quantity Calories/Kilojoules Purified Inulin 4 g 0.48/2.01  Banana 6 bananas  630/2,638 Raw Asparagus 1 cup (0.237 liters) 27/113 Raw Garlic 15 cloves 60/251 Raw Onion 10 tablespoons chopped 40/167 Wheat Flour 1 cup (0.237 liters)  455/1,905 Raw Jerusalem Artichoke ¼ cup (0.059 liters) 18/75  Raw Chicory Root ½ root 20/84 

Beta-glucan can be found naturally in oats, barley, mushrooms and Baker's yeast. To consume a sufficient quantity of these foods to achieve levels in the most preferred dose is possible but that would contribute significant useable calories or joules to the daily calorie intake of individuals who already have an unhealthy weight (see Table 2) because the foods also contains usable calories or joules.

TABLE 2 Quantity and Calorie or Kilojoule Content for Preferred Dose of Beta-Glucan Ingredient Quantity Calories/Kilojoules PromOat Ingredient 2 g 5.26/22.02 OatWell 22% 2 g 4.3/18.0 Old Fashion Rolled Oats ½ cup dry (0.118 liters) 150/628  Barley ½ cup dry (0.118 liters)  350/1,465 Shitake Mushrooms 5 cups pieces (1.18 liters)  400/1,675 Baker's Yeast 2 cakes (34 g) 35.8/149.9

Polyphenolics can be divided into major groups of anthocyanidins and flavonoids. They are found naturally in blueberry, cranberry, raspberry, and strawberry. These berries contain different levels of anthocyanidins and flavonoids according to Reference 22 and the abbreviated table below. Blueberries contain the broadest spectrum of polyphenolic compounds. Further, ingestion of the equivalent of 2 cups (16 ounces or 0.47 liters) of fresh blueberries provides sufficient bioactive compounds to improve insulin sensitivity in insulin resistant patients as demonstrated in Reference 23.

TABLE 3 USDA Database for the Anthocyanin Content of Selected Foods, Release 2.1 (2007). Values are the mean in mg/100 g edible portion whole raw berry. Cyanidin Delphinidin Malvidin Petunidin Anthrocyanin - Raw Blueberry 16.97 47.40 61.35 26.42 Anthrocyanin - Raw Cranberry 41.81 7.66 0.31 0 Anthrocyanin - Raw Raspberry 35.84 0.29 0.70 0 Anthrocyanin - Raw Strawberry 1.96 0.32 0 0.08

TABLE 4 USDA Database for the Flavonoid Content of Selected Foods, Release 2.1 (2007). Values are the mean in mg/100 g edible portion whole raw berry. Epicatechin Catechin Myricetin Quercetin Flavonoid - Raw Blueberry 13.69 37.24 2.66 5.05 Flavonoid - Raw Cranberry 4.37 0.39 6.78 15.09 Flavonoid - Raw Raspberry 4.07 1.56 0 1.23 Flavonoid - Raw Strawberry 0.12 3.32 0 1.14

To consume a sufficient quantity (2 cups (16 ounces) or 0.47 liters) to achieve levels in the most preferred dose of blueberry is possible but that would contribute significant useable calories or joules to the daily calorie intake of individuals who already have an unhealthy weight (see Table 5) because the food also contains usable calories or joules, especially sugar. Pomace is the solid remains of blueberry after pressing for juice and thus removes sugar and water when manufacturing berry juice. Pomace contains indigestible carbohydrate that accounts for 85% of calories or joules. Pomace can be extracted with solvents such as alcohol or water to remove other useable calories. Blueberry extracts of pomace contain less than 10 useable Calories (42 Kilojoules).

TABLE 5 Quantity and Calorie or Kilojoule Content for Preferred Dose of Berry Pomace Calories (kcal)/ Calories/Kilojoule (kilojoule) Berry Pomace Berry Fresh Whole Berry (sugar removed) Blueberry (2 cups) 158/662  53.2/223  (0.47 liters) Cranberry (5.38 cups) 323/1,352 179.7/752.4  (1.27 liters) Raspberry (9.41 cups) 602/2,520  398/1,666 (2.23 liters) Strawberry (59.3 cups) 2965/12,414 1209.7/5,064.7 (14.03 liters)

In some cases dosing may be once a day to initiate treatment and to acclimate the GI microbiome for up to 1 week and then switched to twice daily dosing. In other cases twice daily administration of half the optimal dose is desired such as in children or the elderly. In some cases optimal twice daily dosing may be changed to a daily dosing regimen to maintain the changes stimulated by twice daily dosing. In other cases the twice daily dosing may be switched to twice daily dosing of half the most preferred dose such as in children or adults who cannot tolerate preferred dosing.

The present invention can be used in combination with drugs. For example, broad spectrum antibiotics prescribed for systemic infections are not completely absorbed by the upper GI system and make it to the microbiota environment. This will temporarily alter the GI microbiome and it may be desirable to ingest the formulation of the present invention during antibiotic therapy, in preparation for a course of antibiotics, or following such intervention. Specific antibiotics may target Gram positive or Gram negative bacteria. Treatment with a Gram positive antibiotic before-, during-, or following ingestion of the above combination of prebiotics of the present invention could improve the desired outcome. Because the formulation of the present invention is expected to increase GLP-1 levels, it may be desirable to combine that intervention with a DPP-IV (dipeptidy peptidase type IV) inhibitor such as Vildagliptin, Sitagliptin, or others in this class. This will greatly prolong the half-life of GLP-1 released from the colon and the combination would be preferred over the DPP-IV inhibitor alone or an injection of a GLP-1 peptide agonist such as Byetta. The present invention can also be combined with other diabetes interventions such as biguanides. An example includes metformin (Glucophage, Glucophage XR, Riomet, Fortamet, and Glumetza). In fact, combined use of the present invention with metformin may not only improve blood glucose regulation but will counter the diarrhea side effect often associated with metformin (see Example 5). This is a potentially important clinical observation. Metformin is recommended as the initial drug of choice for the treatment of type-2 diabetes (26). Metformin has been reported to cause a 20% incidence of diarrhea in diabetic patients taking the drug compared to only 6% of diabetic patients not taking metformin (27). In fact, diarrhea with metformin is a sufficient problem that some diabetic patients cannot tolerate the drug. Since metformin has a good safety record, causes an approximate 2-3 kg weight loss and is a low-cost generic medication, increasing the tolerance to metformin while increasing its efficacy using a safe food supplement could have beneficial public health consequences. The present invention may also be combined with alpha-glucosidase inhibitors such as Precose (acarbose) and Glyset (miglitol) that are effective in controlling blood glucose but are poorly tolerated because of associated diarrhea. In addition, some drugs such as atypical antipsychotics and insulin cause weight gain in some patients. The present invention could be combined with such drugs to combat the weight gain without intervening with antipsychotic efficacy.

The present invention can be used to treat other diseases and syndromes. Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a disorder characterized by abdominal pain or discomfort, and altered bowel habit (chronic or recurrent diarrhea, constipation, or both—either mixed or in alternation). IBS with constipation is sometimes referred to as IBS-C or constipation-predominant IBS. IBS with diarrhea is sometimes referred to as IBS-D. The key symptom of IBS is abdominal pain or discomfort anywhere in the abdomen. It may change over time. The impact of IBS can range from mild inconvenience to severe debilitation. Persons with moderate to severe IBS must struggle with symptoms that often impair their physical, emotional, economic, educational and social well-being. The exact cause of IBS is not known. Treatments are available for IBS to help manage symptoms but none appear to address the etiology. Fecal microbiota of patients suffering with IBS have a 2-fold decrease in the ratio of the Bacteroidetes to Firmicutes when compared with healthy individuals (28). Thus, the present invention that stimulates an increase in the ratio of members of the Bacteroidetes phylum to the Firmicutes phylum should be an efficacious and safe therapeutic to treat IBS.

The present invention can be used in preparation for fecal transplant or fecal bacteriotherapy and its follow up. Fecal microbiota transplantation is the process of transplantation of fecal microbiota from a healthy individual into a recipient as a treatment for diseases such as infection by Clostridium difficile (29) or more recently, type 2 diabetes (30). Guidelines for both the donor and the recipient are being prepared and will likely indicate strategies for both the donor and the recipient. The use of the present invention in preparation of both subjects for the procedure and continued use by the recipient after transplantation will increase the probability of a successful outcome. The present invention can also be used in preparation for fecal banking. Such practice will permit a subject to prepare a specific fecal sample for banking until needed. This may occur in preparation of prolonged antibiotic surgery, cancer chemotherapy and an unforeseen chronic illness.

The present invention can be used to treat ocular diseases. Recently, it was demonstrated that the microbiota of a conventional raised laboratory mouse adversely alters the ocular lens (31). The present invention is designed to cause a shift in the GI microbiome. Thus, the invention will be useful in prevention of cataracts. Another eye syndrome is commonly called dry-eye syndrome (DES). Traditionally, DES has been thought of as a deficiency of tears at the ocular surface. In recent years, however, investigators have shown that DES is much more complex than previously thought, and that “tear film dysfunction syndrome” might more accurately describe the condition. Tear film dysfunction can be broken down into two basic etiologic classifications: insufficient tear production or increased evaporation of tears from the eye surface (32). The tear film is made up of lipid, aqueous and mucin components. Individuals with dry eye syndrome can be deficient in any of these components and all appear to be related, in part, to healthy GI function. Thus, the present invention will be useful in treating DES.

TABLE 6 Most Preferred Formulation with Function. Mass Ingredient (g/dose) Function Reference Blueberry extract 4.7 Weight loss, antimicrobial, 1-5 antioxidant β-Glucan 2 ↑satiety, ↓ LDL chol, ↑PYY,  6-11 ↑GLP-1 , ↓ ghrelin, ↓ hunger Inulin 4 ↑GLP-1, ↑PYY, ↑satiety, ↓ 12-15 ghrelin, ↓ TG, Support GI Immune System ↑indicates an increase is reported ↓ indicates that a decrease is reported TG is triglyceride 1. J. Nutr. 140: 1764-1768, 2010. 2. Chemico-Biological Interactions 189: 1-8, 2011 3. J. Agric. Food Chem. 58: 3970, 2010 4. J Appl Microbiol. 90: 494, 2001 5. Am J Clin Nutr. 79: 727, 2004 6. J Med Food 10: 720, 2007 7. Nutr Res 26: 644, 2006. 8. J. Nutr. 138: 732, 2008 9. J Am. Coll. Nutr. 26: 639, 2007. 10. Appetite 53: 338, 2009 11. Eur J Clin Nutr 62: 600, 2008. 12. Am J Clin Nutr 89: 1751, 2009 13. Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 35: 9-16 (2010) 14. J. Nutr. 137: 2552S-2556S, 2007 15. J. Nutr. 137: 2547S-2551S, 2007

TABLE 7 Quantity of Ingredients to Formulate Efficacious Doses Containing No More than 70 Useable Calories (293 Kilojoules) (amounts of inulin and beta glucan are pure - quantities of product containing them will be higher): Row Ingredient Inulin Beta Glucan Blueberry 1 from Oat Pomace Extract Powder Row Alternative oligofructoses, Beta-glucan dietary 2 fructo-oligosaccharides, from: polyphenolic lactulose, baker's yeast, compounds galcto-oligosaccharides, oat, barley, such as those arabinoxylans, resistant wheat, fungi, present in starch, mushrooms, extracts of xylo-oligosaccharides, bacteria, and pomace from polydextrose, soybean other berries, oligosaccharides, isomalto- biocompatible grapes, melons oligosaccharides, gluco- sources oligosaccharides, palatinose, gentio-oligosaccharides, lactitol, sorbitol, maltitol, xylitol Row Function Stimulates production of Decrease total Inhibit growth 3 short chain fatty acids in cholesterol, of some GI colon, suppress pathogenic decrease LDL microbiota, bacteria and viruses from cholesterol, induce a colonizing the GI tract, increase HDL reduced inhibit hepatic cholesterol cholesterol, intestinal biosynthesis, provide decrease microbiome or colonocytes nutrients, blood glucose, serve as an reduce colon pH, increase protect antioxidant, colon mineral absorption, intestinal stimulate provide ligands to stimulate mucosa, growth of release of peptide YY (PYY) prime the GI microbiota and glucagon-like peptide-1 immune that thrive in a (GLP-1) into the blood, systems, reduced produce inactive ghrelin. increase environment. viscosity of GI microbiome, absorb excess water in colon. Row Preferred 1-12 g  0.5-6 g   1-15 g  4 Range Row More 2-8 g 0.75-4 g   2-10 g  5 Preferred Range Row Most 3-5 g 1-3 g 2-6 g 6 Preferred Range Row Example   4 g   2 g 4.7 g 7

Formula A

FORMULA A is made of 4.7 g dried blueberry pomace extract powder from Milne Fruit Products (Prosser, Wash., product no. FG20155), 9.22 g OatWell 22®beta glucan from CreaNutrition (Sweden), 4.4 g agave inulin (Inufib) from The Iidea Company (Tlaquepaque, Jal., Mexico), with inactive ingredients preferably added for flavor, mouth feel, texture and mixing, including 8.5 g erythritol, 0.5 g soy protein, 0.4 g xanthan gum, 0.38 g citric acid, 0.14 g stevia, and 0.4 g natural flavor that are not believed to affect the efficacy of Formula A. FORMULA A is to be added to a liquid such as 180 ml of water, milk, juice, etc., mixed and consumed as a suspension. The dried blueberry pomace extract powder used in connection with the present invention is preferably blueberry extract powder, product no. FG20155, available from Milne Fruit Products of Prosser, Wash.

Formula A is used in the examples below. One dose of FORMULA A provides 120% of the recommended daily dietary allowance (RDA) of antioxidant activity for children and adults as well as 30% dietary fiber for men and 50% dietary fiber for women, 60% dietary fiber for children aged 1-3, 45% dietary fiber for children aged 4-8, 36% dietary fiber for boys of ages 9-13, and 45% of dietary fiber for girls of ages 9-13.

Preferably a dose of Formula A is taken at least once per day, more preferably at least twice per day, and even more preferably at least 3 times per day. Each dose of FORMULA A is analyzed to contain active and inactive ingredients described in the table 8:

TABLE 8 Active and Inactive Ingredients Measured in the Most Preferred Dose of FORMULA A. Analyte Mass / dose Active Ingredients Total anthrocyanins 162.53 mg Total polyphenolics 723.99 mg Antioxidant activity 6964.4 μmoles TE Beta glucan 2.03 g Inulin 3.79 g Other soluble fiber 3.03 g Insoluble fiber 2.30 g Inactive Ingredients Protein 2.87 g Fat 0.34 g Calcium 54.81 mg Iron 1.63 mg Sodium 52.99 mg Potassium 132.32 mg Erythritol 8.39 g Sucrose 0.17 g Fructose 1.54 g Glucose & Galactose 0.71 g Further analysis of the phenolic content of FORMULA A is described by the table 9:

TABLE 9 Finger Print Analysis of Polyphenolics Present in the Most Preferred Dose of Formula A. Catechins¹ Epigallocatechin Gallate 158.2 mg  Epicatechin Gallate 110.5 mg  Epigallocatechin 21.9 mg  Catechin 6.7 mg Epicathecin 3.5 mg Quercetin 3.2 mg Gallocatechin Gallate 1.1 mg Gallocatechin ND Catechin Gallate ND Anthocyanins¹ Malvidin 3-O-Galactoside 30.9 mg  Malvidin 3-O-Arabinoside 17.7 mg  Malvidin 3-O-Glucoside 12.4 mg  Delphinidin 3-O-Arabinoside 9.4 mg Delphinidin 3-O-Galactoside 7.5 mg Petunidin 3-O-Galactoside 6.8 mg Petunidin 3-O-Arabinoside 6.4 mg Petunidin 3-O-Glucoside 5.0 mg Delphinidin 3-O-Glucoside 4.5 mg Peonidin Chloride 1.5 mg Cyanidin 3-O-Arabinoside 1.2 mg Peonidin 3-O-Glucoside 1.2 mg Cyanidin 3-O-Glucoside 0.7 mg Delphinidin Chloride 0.6 mg Peonidin 3-O-Arabinoside 0.5 mg Peonidin 3-O-Galactoside 0.4 mg Petunidin Chloride 0.4 mg Cyanidin Chloride 0.4 mg Cyanidin 3-O-Galactoside ND Cyanidin 3-O-Rutinoside ND Malvidin Chloride ND ¹HPLC analysis, ²ORAC trolox equivalents, ND = not detectable

Example 1

Human Study Utilizing FORMULA A to Increase the Ratio of Gastrointestinal Microbiota in Phylum Bacteroidetes to Microbiota of Firmicutes Phylum, Improve Glucose Regulation and Improve Body Composition

Subject and Methods

a) The required number of subjects are properly screened to fulfill the necessary qualifications,

b) appropriate laboratory evaluations are performed,

c) measures of positive primary and secondary outcome responses are recorded,

d) adverse events are documented, and

e) patients are adequately followed-up.

Overview

This study is expected to demonstrate that overweight subjects with impaired fasting blood glucose on an ad libitum diet who take formula A either within 1 hour prior to meal 1 or within 1 hour prior to meal 2, as well as within 1 hour prior to meal 3 for 4 weeks:

1. Eliminate stool containing a greater ratio of microbiota species from the Bacteroidetes phylum to Firmicutes phylum than this ratio of microbiota in their stool at the start of the intervention, and when compared to subjects consuming a placebo, and

2. Have an improved oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) as measured by blood glucose and insulin levels before, during, and at 120 minutes after ingestion of 75 g glucose when compared to their initial OGTT, and when compared to subjects consuming placebo, and

3. Have lower overnight fasting blood glucose levels as measured by a blood glucose monitor before ingesting a morning meal when compared to their overnight faking blood glucose values at the start of the intervention, and when compared to subjects consuming placebo.

4. Experience an improved body composition as measured by a decrease in body weight, a decrease in body fat or % body fat, a decrease in waist circumference measurements, and

5. Experience decreased appetite before a meal, increased satiety during the meal, when compared to subjects consuming placebo, and

6. are found to have elevated GLP-1 as well as PYY levels with reduced active ghrelin levels after a standardized meal when the values are compared to those of subjects consuming placebo on week 3 of the intervention.

General

In this study, subjects consume either 180 ml of FORMULA A formula or a placebo containing the same total dietary fiber level as FORMULA A but as inactive cellulose orally within 1 hour prior to consumption of either meal 1 or meal 2 and within 1 hour prior to consumption of meal 3 each day. Placebo formula contains cellulose with food coloring and flavor to match the total dietary fiber content (8.75 g) of FORMULA A. Placebo is prepared by Merlin Development at the same time they prepare FORMULA A

Subjects report weekly for measurements and assessment of any side effects. They are asked to collect a stool sample before initiating either FORMULA A or placebo intervention as well as at the end of the 4 week treatment period. They are also asked to record any side effects and their frequency (checklist assessment). They are asked to record appetite (how hungry are you) and satiety (how full are you) during the standardized meal at the 3^(rd) week of intervention. They are provided with the proper paper work to record these.

Subject Screening and Selection

A total of 30 subjects is selected, 15 assigned FORMULA A and 15 assigned to placebo.

QUALIFICATIONS OF SUBJECTS 1) Healthy men and women between the ages of 18 and 70 with a BMI between 25 and 35 are eligible. 2) Fasting blood glucose between 100 and 125 mg/dl. 3) Stable weight over 2 months

Subjects Excluded from the Study

People who:

a) take medications affecting glucose,

b) take medications affecting insulin,

c) take medications affecting body weight,

d) take medications affecting bacterial flora,

e) have intestinal disease or a recent history of intestinal disease,

f) have had surgery on stomach or intestine,

g) are hypothyroid,

h) are pregnant,

i) have heart disease,

Appropriate Laboratory Evaluation

Different tests are performed at the screening of potential participants, at the beginning of the study, and at the end of the 4 week treatment period.

-   -   1) SCREENING: Subjects are screened to exclude hypothyroidism,         pregnancy, and heart disease. The following tests can suffice         for this: T4 (thyroxin), T3 (triiodotyronine), TSH (thyroid,         stimulating hormone), urine pregnancy test, blood pressure & ECG         (electrocardiogram).     -   2) BEGINNING OF STUDY: Subjects passing the initial screen are         evaluated at the beginning of WEEK #1 as follows:         -   a) Fasting blood glucose and insulin levels.         -   b) SMA 20 (Sequential multi-channel analysis with             computer-20, a metabolic panel with 20 different analytes),             including, uric acid, and liver function tests         -   c) Triglycerides         -   d) Cholesterol, including fractions         -   e) Glycosylated hemoglobin A1 (HgbA1)         -   f) Weight, taken on the same scale each time         -   g) Body fat % and total body fat, determined by DXA             (dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry),         -   h) Height         -   i) Waist and hip measurements         -   j) Blood glucose, insulin, GLP-1, PYY and ghrelin responses             to a 75 g oral glucose challenge         -   k) Assessment of appetite and satiety using a visual analog             scale         -   l) Stool is collected and stored frozen but not analyzed             until the end of study.     -   3) END OF STUDY ASSESSMENT:         -   a) labs and assessments done in step 2 at beginning of             study,         -   b) Analysis of the fecal microbiome DNA from both the             initial sample and the final sample.

Study Design

-   -   Subjects selected for participation are allowed, an ad libitum         diet and are given an evaluation sheet to assess their appetite         and satiety before and after a meal. Foods excluded include         alcohol. Low calorie or joule liquids are stressed in place of         high calorie or joule liquids such as fruit juices, milk, sweet         tea (tea with sugar), regular soft drinks, coffee with sugar,         etc. The subjects are randomly assigned to either FORMULA A or         placebo treatments. Both the experimenter and the subjects are         blinded to who receive FORMULA A or the placebo. The subjects         are encouraged to consume either treatment within 1 hour prior         to either breakfast or lunch and within 1 hour prior to dinner.

Duration

-   -   Subjects are given a 4 weeks supply of either FORMULA A or         placebo at the onset and are instructed to consume the entire         180 ml volume within 1 hour prior to either meals 1 or 2, as         well as another 180 ml volume containing either FORMULA A or         placebo within 1 hour prior to meal 3. Ad libitum diets are         followed for 4 weeks, but the volunteers are instructed to         consume either FORMULA A or placebo as their only between meal         snack.

Outcome

-   -   This study is expected to demonstrate that FORMULA A:     -   1) Increases the ratio Bacteroidetes species to Firmicutes         species in fecal samples when samples at the end of study are         compared to samples at the onset of study; and when the ratio of         species is compared to samples from the placebo group     -   2) improves the blood glucose and insulin responses to an OGTT         by decreasing the areas under the insulin curve (improved         insulin sensitivity);     -   3) Decrease fasting blood glucose values     -   4) Produces weight loss, loss of body fat, and (or) decrease of         body fat %     -   5) Increases GLP-1 and PYY response to the oral glucose         challenge and decreases the fasting ghrelin levels at 1 hour         after the both the OGTT and the standardized meal when comparing         final values to the initial measurements of the OGTT, and when         comparing to those findings of the placebo group during the         standardized meal; and     -   6) Decreases stool pH;     -   7) Increases stool SCFA.

If subjects took FORMULA A for periods longer than 4 weeks, particularly for at least 8 weeks, the subjects would experience significant weight loss that was primarily fat loss.

Example 2

Human Study Utilizing either FORMULA A or a Placebo Snack Replacement to Increase the Ratio of Gastrointestinal Microbiota in Phylum Bacteroidetes to Microbiota of Firmicutes Phylum, Improve Glucose Regulation and Improve Body Composition

Subject and Methods

a) The required number of subjects are properly screened to fulfill the necessary qualifications,

b) appropriate laboratory evaluations are performed,

c) measures of positive primary and secondary outcome responses are recorded,

d) adverse events are documented, and

e) patients are adequately followed-up.

Overview

This study is expected to demonstrate that overweight subjects with impaired fasting blood glucose on an ad libitum diet who take FORMULA A, but not those assigned to consume a placebo, within 2 hours prior to consuming either meal 1 or meal 2, as well as within 2 hours prior to consuming meal 3 as a snack replacement for 4 weeks:

1. Eliminate stool containing a greater ratio of microbiota species from the Bacteroidetes phylum to Firmicutes phylum than this ratio of microbiota in their stool at the start of the intervention, and

2. Have an improved oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) as measured by blood glucose and insulin levels before, during, and at 120 minutes after ingestion of 75 g glucose when compared to their initial OGTT, and

3. Experience an improved body composition as measured by a decrease in body weight, a decrease in body fat or body fat, a decrease in waist circumference measurements, and

4. Experience lower fasting blood glucose levels when compared to either the initial values or those of the placebo group, and

5. Experience decreased appetite before a meal, increased satiety during the meal, and

6. are found to have elevated GLP-1 as well as PYY levels with reduced active ghrelin levels at 1 hour after both the OGTT and the standardized meal when the values are compared to those at the initiation of the trial (OGTT) or the placebo group (standardized meal test).

General

In this study, subjects are randomly selected to consume 180 ml of either FORMULA A formula or placebo formula orally within 2 hours prior to ingestion of either meals 1 or 2 as well as within 2 hours prior to consumption of meal 3 each day. The subjects and experiments are blinded to the treatment assignments. Placebo formula contains cellulose with food coloring and flavor to match the total dietary fiber content (8.75 g) of FORMULA A. Placebo is prepared by Merlin Development at the same time they prepare FORMULA A. Both formulations are coded by Merlin Development and the code is maintained with them as well as is held in confidence by a pharmacist at the study clinic until all data are collected at the end of study.

Subjects report weekly for measurement s and assessment of any side effects. They are asked to collect a stool sample before initiating FORMULA A or Placebo intervention as well as at the end of the 4 week treatment period. They are also asked to record any side effects and their frequency (checklist assessment). They are asked to record appetite (how hungry are you) and satiety (how full are you) during the OGTT at both the onset and at the end of the trial as well as during a 3^(rd) standardized meal. They are provided with the proper paper work to record these.

Subject Screening and Selection

A total of 30 subjects is selected. Fifteen subjects are randomly assigned to consume FORMULA A and the remaining 15 subjects are assigned to the FORMULA A group. The demographics of each group are carefully matched.

QUALIFICATIONS OF SUBJECTS 1) Healthy men and women between the ages of 18 and 70 with a BMI between 25 and 35 are eligible. 2) Fasting blood glucose between 100 and 125 mg/dl. 3) Stable weight over 2 months.

Subjects Excluded from the Study

People who:

a) take medications affecting glucose,

b) take medications affecting insulin,

c) take medications affecting body weight,

d) take medications affecting bacterial flora,

e) have intestinal disease or a recent history of intestinal disease,

f) have had surgery on stomach or intestine,

g) are hypothyroid,

h) are pregnant,

i) have heart disease.

Appropriate Laboratory Evaluation

Different tests are performed at the screening of potential participants, at the beginning of the study, and at the end of the 4 week treatment period.

-   -   4) SCREENING: Subjects are screened to exclude hypothyroidism,         pregnancy, and head disease. The following tests can suffice for         this: T4 (thyroxin), T3 (triiodotyronine), TSH (thyroid         stimulating hormone), urine pregnancy test, blood pressure & ECG         (electrocardiogram).     -   5) BEGINNING OF STUDY: Subjects passing the initial screen are         evaluated at the beginning of WEEK #1 as follows:         -   a) Fasting blood glucose and insulin levels.         -   b) SMA 20 (Sequential multi-channel analysis with             computer-20, a metabolic panel with 20 different analytes),             including, uric acid, and liver function tests         -   c) Triglycerides         -   d) Cholesterol, including fractions         -   e) Glycosylated hemoglobin A1 (HgbA1)         -   f) Weight, taken on the same scale each time         -   g) Body fat % and total body fat, determined by DXA             (dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry).         -   h) Height         -   i) Waist and hip measurements         -   j) Blood glucose, insulin, GLP-1, PYY and ghrelin responses             to a 75 g oral glucose challenge         -   k) Assessment of appetite and satiety using a visual analog             scale         -   l) Stool is collected and stored frozen but not analyzed             until the end of study.     -   6) END OF STUDY ASSESSMENT:         -   c) all labs and assessments done in step 2 at beginning of             study,         -   d) Analysis of the fecal microbiome DNA from both the             initial sample and the final sample.

Study Design

-   -   Subjects selected for participation are allowed, an ad libitum         diet and are given an evaluation sheet to assess their appetite         and satiety before and after a meal. Foods excluded include         alcohol. Low calorie or joule liquids are stressed in place of         high calorie or joule liquids such as fruit juices, milk, sweet         tea (tea with sugar), regular soft drinks, coffee with sugar,         etc. The subjects are encouraged to consume either FORMULA A or         Placebo as their only between meal snack.

Duration

-   -   Subjects are given a 4 weeks supply of ether FORMULA A or         Placebo at the onset and are instructed to consume the entire         180 ml volume containing either formula within 2 hours prior to         either meals 1 or 2, as well as another 180 ml volume containing         either formula within 2 hours prior to meal 3. Ad libitum diets         are followed for 4 weeks, but the volunteers are instructed to         consume either FORMULA A or Placebo as their only between meal         snack.

Outcome

-   -   This study is expected to demonstrate that FORMULA A and not         Placebo:     -   1) increases the ratio of Bacteroidetes species to Firmicutes         species in fecal samples when samples at the end of study are         compared to samples at the onset of study;     -   2) improves the blood glucose and insulin responses to an OGTT         by decreasing the areas under the insulin curve (improved         insulin sensitivity);     -   3) produces weight loss, loss of body fat, and (or) decrease of         body fat %;     -   4) Increases GLP-1 and PYY response to the oral glucose         challenge and decreases the fasting ghrelin levels prior to the         OGTT when comparing final values to the initial measurements;     -   5) Decreases stool pH;     -   6) Increases stool SCFA.

If subjects took FORMULA A as a snack replacement for periods longer than 4 weeks, particularly for at least 8 weeks, the subjects would experience significant weight loss that was primarily fat loss.

Example 3

Human Study Utilizing FORMULA A in Combination with an Inhibitor of Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) to Increase the Ratio of Gastrointestinal Microbiota in Phylum Bacteroidetes to Microbiota Firmicutes Phylum and Improve Glucose Regulation by Sustained Elevation of GLP-1

Subject and Methods

a) The required number of subjects are properly screened to fulfill the necessary qualifications,

b) appropriate laboratory evaluations are performed,

c) measures of positive primary and secondary outcome responses are recorded,

d) adverse events are documented, and

e) patients are adequately followed-up.

Overview

This study is expected to demonstrate that Type 2 diabetic (T2D) subjects with insulin resistance on an ad libitum diet who take a DPP-4 inhibitor and FORMULA A within 1 hour prior to either meal 1 or meal 2, as well as within 1 hour prior to meal 3 for 4 weeks:

1. Eliminate stool containing a greater ratio of microbiota species from the Bacteroidetes phylum to Firmicutes phylum than this ratio of microbiota in their stool at the start of the intervention and when compared to those only taking the DPP-4 inhibitor, and

2. Have improved insulin sensitivity when compared to both initiation of the study and when compared to those only taking a DPP-4 inhibitor. Insulin sensitivity is measured by an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). This is performed by measuring blood glucose and insulin levels before, during, and at 120 minutes after ingestion of 75 g glucose when compared to their initial OGTT, and

3. Have improved fasting blood glucose values when compared to those only taking the DPP-4 inhibitor, and

4. experience an improved body composition as measured by a decrease in body weight, a decrease in body fat or % body fat, a decrease in waist circumference measurements when compared to their baseline values and when compared to those only taking the DPP-4 inhibitor, and

5. experience decreased appetite before a standardized meal, increased satiety during that meal when compared to their baseline values and when compared to those only taking the DPP-4 inhibitor, and

6. are found to have elevated GLP-1 as well as PYY levels with reduced ghrelin levels at 1 hour after the both the OGTT and the standardized meal when the values are compared to their baseline values and when compared to those only taking the DPP-4 inhibitor.

General

In this study, T2D patients are randomly assigned to either consume 180 ml of FORMULA A or a placebo formula containing cellulose orally within 1 hour prior to either meals 1 or 2 as well as within 1 hour prior to meal 3 each day. Patients and experimenters are blinded to this assignment. All patients are also instructed to take sitagliptin (Januvia®) at the recommended dose of 100 mg, once per day in the morning prior to meal 1 as a treatment to manage their diabetes.

Subjects report weekly for measurements and assessment of any side effects. They are asked to collect a stool sample before the initiation of the trial as well as at the end of the 4 week treatment period. They are also asked to record any side effects and their frequency (checklist assessment). They are asked to record appetite (how hungry are you) and satiety (how full are you) during the OGTT at both the onset and at the end of the trial as well as before and during a standardized meal at the 3^(rd) week of treatments. They are provided with the proper paper work to record these.

Subject Screening and Selection

A total of 24 subjects is selected. 12 will be randomly assigned to receive Januvia®+placebo (a cellulose solution that contains the same total dietary fiber content as FORMULA A and mimics FORMULA A in color and taste) or Januvia®+FORMULA A.

QUALIFICATIONS OF SUBJECTS 1) T2D men and women between the ages of 18 and 70 with a BMI between 25 and 35 are eligible. 2) Fasting blood glucose between greater than 125 mg/dl. 3) Stable weight over 2 months

Subjects Excluded from the Study

People who:

a) take medications affecting glucose other Januvia,

b) take medications affecting insulin other than Januvia,

c) take medications affecting body weight,

d) take medications affecting bacterial flora,

e) have intestinal disease or a recent history of intestinal disease,

f) have had surgery on stomach or intestine,

g) are hypothyroid,

h) are pregnant,

i) have heart disease.

Appropriate Laboratory Evaluation

Different tests are performed at the screening of potential participants, at the beginning of the study, and at the end of the 4 week treatment period.

-   -   (7) SCREENING Subjects are screened to exclude hypothyroidism,         pregnancy, and heart disease. The following tests can suffice         for this: T4, T3, TSH, urine pregnancy test, blood pressure &         ECG. Fasting blood glucose, fasting insulin and HgbA1 levels are         also measure as an assessment of their diabetic state.     -   (8) BEGINNING OF STUDY: Subjects passing the initial screen are         evaluated at the beginning of WEEK #1 as follows:         -   a) Fasting blood glucose, insulin, and HgbA1 levels,         -   b) SMA 20, including uric acid and liver function tests         -   c) Triglycerides         -   d) Cholesterol, including fractions         -   f) Weight, taken on the same scale each time         -   g) Body fat % and total body fat, determined by DXA,         -   h) Height         -   i) Waist and hip measurements         -   j) Blood glucose, insulin, GLP-I, PYY and ghrelin responses             to a 75 g oral glucose challenge         -   k) Assessment of appetite and satiety before, during and             after a standardized meal using a visual analog scale         -   l) Stool is collected and stored frozen but not analyzed             until the end of study.     -   (9) END OF STUDY ASSESSMENT:         -   e) all labs and assessments done in step 2 at beginning of             study,         -   f) Analysis of the fecal microbiome DNA from both the             initial sample and the final sample.

Study Design

-   -   Patients selected for participation are allowed an ad libitum         diet and are given an evaluation sheet to assess their appetite         and satiety. Foods excluded include alcohol. Low calorie or         joule liquids are stressed in place of high calorie or joule         liquids such as fruit juices, milk, sweet tea (tea with sugar),         regular soft drinks, coffee with sugar, etc. All 24 patients are         also instructed to take sitagliptin (Januvia®) at the         recommended dose of 100 mg, once per day in the morning with or         without food as a treatment to manage their diabetes. 12         patients are randomly selected to also consume FORMULA A before         2 of 3 daily meals and the remaining 12 patients are instructed         to consume a placebo before 2 of 3 daily meals. Patients and         investigators are blinded to whether the snack replacement is         placebo or FORMULA A.

Duration

-   -   Subjects are given a 4 weeks supply of sitagliptin and either         FORMULA A or placebo at the onset and are instructed to consume         the entire 180 ml volume of either snack replacement within 1         hour prior to either meals 1 or 2, as well as another 180 ml         volume of snack replacement within 1 hour prior to meal 3. All         subjects are required to take 1 tablet of sitagliptin daily (100         mg) in the morning with or without food. Ad libitum diets are         followed for 4 weeks.

Outcome

-   -   This study is expected to demonstrate that FORMULA A:     -   1) Increases the ratio of Bacteroidetes species to Firmicutes         species in fecal samples when samples at the end of study from         those assigned to FORMULA A are compared to samples at the onset         of study and when subjects taking Januvia+FORMULA A are compared         to patients taking Januvia+placebo.     -   2) Improves the blood glucose and insulin responses to an OGTT         by decreasing the areas under the insulin curve (improved         insulin sensitivity) when subjects taking Januvia+FORMULA A are         compared to patients taking Januvia+placebo     -   3) produces weight loss, loss of body fat, and (or) decrease of         body fat % when patients assigned to FORMULA A are compared to         samples at the onset of study and when subjects taking         Januvia+FORMULA A are compared to patients taking         Januvia+placebo.     -   4) produces decreased fasting blood glucose levels when subjects         taking Januvia+FORMULA A are compared to patients taking         Januvia+placebo, and     -   5) Increases GLP-1 and PYY response to the oral glucose         challenge and decreases the fasting ghrelin levels prior to the         OGTT when patients assigned to FORMULA A are compared to samples         at the onset of study and when subjects taking Januvia+FORMULA A         are compared to patients taking Januvia+placebo,     -   6) Decreases stool pH when patients assigned to the FORMULA A         arm are compared to samples at the onset of study and when         subjects taking Januvia+FORMULA A are compared to patients         taking Januvia+placebo     -   7) Increases stool SCFA when patients assigned to the FORMULA A         arm are compared to samples at the onset of study and when         subjects taking Januvia+FORMULA A are compared to patients         taking Januvia+placebo

If subjects took FORMULA A with other DPP-IV inhibitors or other formulations of Januvia, the subjects are expected to also have significantly improved glucose regulation.

Example 4

Study Utilizing FORMULA A Snack Replacement to Increase the Ratio of Gastrointestinal Microbiota in Phylum Bacteroidetes to Microbiota of Firmicutes Phylum, Improve Glucose Regulation and Improve Body Composition in Overweight Children

Subject and Methods

a) The required number of children are properly screened to fulfill the necessary qualifications and their parental consent is obtained,

b) appropriate laboratory evaluations are performed,

c) measures of positive primary and secondary outcome responses are recorded,

d) adverse events are documented, and

e) children and their parents are adequately followed-up.

Overview

This study is expected to demonstrate that overweight children with prediabetes or at high risk of developing T2D (type 2 diabetes) on an ad libitum diet who take FORMULA B (identical active ingredients to FORMULA A but formulated in a child friendly delivery system such as ice cream, jelled animals, cookies, e within 1 hour prior to either meal 1 or meal 2, as well as within 1 hour prior to meal 3 for 4 weeks:

1. Eliminate stool containing a greater ratio of microbiota species from the Bacteroidetes phylum to Firmicutes phylum than this ratio in their stool at the start of the intervention, and

2. Have an improved oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) as measured by blood glucose and insulin levels before, during, and at 120 minutes after ingestion of 1.75 g glucose/kg body weight up to 75 g glucose when compared to their initial OGTT, and

3. experience an improved body composition as measured by a decrease in body weight, a decrease in body fat or % body fat, a decrease in waist circumference measurements, and

4. Experience decreased fasting blood glucose levels

5. experience decreased appetite before a meal, increased satiety during the meal, and

6. are found to have elevated GLP-1 as well as PYY levels with reduced ghrelin levels 1 hour after the OGTT when the values are compared to those at the initiation of the

General

In this study, children consume 6 jelled animals of FORMULA B formula (each jelled animal contains about 20 g of FORMULA B) within 1 hour prior to either meals 1 or 2 as well as within 1 hour prior to meal 3 each day.

Subjects report weekly for measurements and assessment of any side effects. They are asked to collect a stool sample before initiating FORMULA B intervention as well as at the end of the 4 week treatment period. They are also asked to report side effects to their parents who record them and their frequency (checklist assessment). The parents are instructed to ask and to record appetite (how hungry are you) and satiety (how full are you) before, during, and after a standardized 3^(rd) meal at the beginning of study and at the end. The investigators score the same assessment during the OGTT at both the onset and at the end of the trial as well as at home. The parents are provided with the proper paper work to record these.

Subject Screening and Selection

A total of 10 children is selected.

QUALIFICATIONS OF SUBJECTS 1) Healthy prepubertal boys and girls between the ages of 7 and 12 with a BMI between 25 and 30 are eligible. 2) Fasting blood glucose between 100 and 125 mg/dl.

Subjects Excluded from the Study

Children who:

a) take medications affecting glucose,

b) take medications affecting insulin,

c) take medications affecting body weight,

d) take medications affecting bacterial flora,

e) have intestinal disease or a recent history of intestinal disease,

f) have had surgery on stomach or intestine,

g) are hypothyroid,

Appropriate Laboratory Evaluation

Different tests are performed at the screening of potential participants, at the beginning of the study, and at the end of the 4 week treatment period.

SCREENING: Children are screened to exclude hypothyroidism and puberty. The following tests can suffice for this: T4, T3, TSH, a physical exam, and in questionable cases based on the physical exam or peripubertal presentations, a gonadotropin-releasing hormone challenge test.

BEGINNING OF STUDY: Children passing the initial screen are evaluated at the beginning of WEEK #1 as follows:

a) Fasting blood glucose and insulin levels.

b) SMA 20, including uric acid and liver function tests

c) Triglycerides

d) Cholesterol, including fractions

e) Glycosylated hemoglobin A1 (HgbA1)

f) Weight, taken on the same scale each time

g) Body fat % and total body fat, determined by DXA,

h) Height

i) Waist and hip measurements

j) Blood glucose, insulin, GLP-1, PYY and ghrelin responses to a 1.75 g/kg (up to 75 g) oral glucose challenge

k) Assessment of appetite and satiety using a visual analog scale

(l) Stool is collected and stored frozen but not analyzed until the end of study.

End of Study Assessment:

-   -   a) all labs and assessments done in step 2 at beginning of         study,     -   b) Analysis of the fecal microbiome DNA from both the initial         sample and the final sample.

Study Design

-   -   Children selected for participation are allowed an ad libitum         diet and their parents are given an evaluation sheet to assess         their appetite and satiety. Low calorie or joule liquids are         stressed in place of high calorie or joule liquids such as fruit         juices, milk, regular soft drinks, coffee with sugar, etc. The         children are encouraged to consume FORMULA B as their only         between meal snack. Other snacks such as candy, ice cream, milk         shakes, cookies, potato chips, etc. are discouraged.

Duration

-   -   Children are given a 4 weeks supply of FORMULA B at the onset         and are instructed to consume the entire 6 jelled animals         containing FORMULA B within 1 hour prior to either meal 1 or 2,         as well as another 6 jelled animals containing FORMULA B within         1 hour prior to meal 3. Ad libitum diets are followed for 4         weeks, but the children are instructed to consume FORMULA B as         their only between meal snack.

Outcome

-   -   This study is expected to demonstrate that FORMULA B:     -   1) Increases the ratio of Bacteroidetes species to Firmicutes         species in fecal samples when samples at the end of study are         compared to samples at the onset of study.     -   2) Improves the blood glucose and insulin responses to an OGTT         by decreasing the areas under the insulin curve (improved         insulin sensitivity)     -   3) produces weight loss, loss of body fat, and (or) decrease of         body fat % decreases GLP-1 and PYY response to the oral glucose         challenge and decreases the fasting ghrelin levels prior to the         OGTT when comparing final values to the initial measurements.     -   5) Decreases stool pH     -   6) Increases stool SCFA

If children took FORMULA A for periods longer than 4 weeks as a snack replacement, particularly for at least 8 weeks, the children would experience significant weight loss that was primarily fat loss.

Example 5

Formula A Augments the Efficacy and Gastrointestinal Tolerability of Metformin: A Case Report

Subject

JH was a 30 year old Caucasian male who gained 10 kg over the course of 8 months and developed lower back pain. He presented to his primary physician with that complaint.

The patient was taking omeprazole (20 mg/d), lisinopril (40 mg/d), metoprolol (100 mg/d), and hydrochlorothiazide (25 mg/d) at the time of his presentation, had no allergies and had undergone no surgeries. He denied past hospitalizations, trauma with residua or blood transfusions. He had never smoked, drank 3-4 alcoholic drinks per week on average and had no history of intravenous drug use. He was a full-time law student and had no exposures to occupational toxins. During the 6 months prior to his presentation he had been sexually active with one woman. The patient's mother and father were living and well. He had one sister who was living and well, and he had no children. There was no family history of diabetes. He had no complaint other than lower back pain. On physical examination he was 104 kg with a height of 165 cm and a body mass index (BMI) of 38.3 kg/m². His blood pressure was 116/70 with a pulse rate of 80/min and he was afebrile. Urinalysis demonstrated presence of glucose, that was followed up by a non-fasting capillary blood glucose of 450 mg/dl glucose and a hemoglobin A1c of 8.8% and a microalbumin/creatine ratio of 147. His physician made the diagnosis of type 2 diabetes mellitus based on his age, lack of acidosis and a fasting blood sugar of 375 mg/dL. He was started on metformin 500 mg twice a day and was instructed to measure his fasting blood sugar on a daily basis. Over the course of 7 days he was instructed to increase metformin to 1000 mg twice a day. Over the course of the next 9 days he developed persistent watery stools and his fasting blood sugar decreased to about 325 mg/dL. Be knew from his contact with NuMe Health, LLC that the company was developing and testing a dietary supplement with a goal of increase insulin sensitivity through a salutary effect on the stool microbiome. On the 9th day of his treatment with 1000 mg metformin dose, he added FORMULA A taken twice a day within an hour before breakfast or lunch and within an hour before dinner. Within two days of starting FORMULA A his fasting glucose dropped from 325 mg/dL to 175 mg/dL and after 5 weeks of taking the FORMULA A along with the metformin, his fasting blood glucose was 100 mg/dL (FIG. 1).

FIG. 1 shows fasting blood glucose levels at the start of 1000 mg metformin twice daily. Formula A was added twice daily on day 9 and the combination was continued except from days 49 to 51 when daily dosing of FORMULA A was missed. Diarrhea was associated with metformin except when Formula A was added.

Dividing the first 60 days of diabetes treatment into 10 day periods, his blood sugar and its variance (standard deviation) decreased from 344±44.1 mg/dL in the first 10 days, to 182.2±14.7 in the second 10 days, 144.3±9.6 during the third 10 days, 114.5±11.8 during the fourth 10 days, 123.0±9.6 during the fifth 10 days, and 121.0±11.8 during the sixth 10 days (FIG. 2).

During this period, his weight decreased by 5.5 kg, and his watery stools reverted to soft regular formed bowel movements. After an additional month, he ran out of his FORMULA A for 2 days. During that period, his blood sugar increased from 100 mg/dL to 131 mg/dL and his diarrhea returned. After resuming FORMULA A his blood sugar returned to 113 mg/dL and his stools return to being formed and soft. His diabetic control and stools have remained under control on the combination of metformin and FORMULA A at the time of this writing and he has lost about 5.5 kg body weight. His hemoglobin A1c decreased to 6.3% and a microalbumin/creatine ratio was 16.

Discussion

This case report is encouraging. Not only did FORMULA A appear to have a positive effect on fasting blood sugar, but the watery stools induced by treatment with metformin were normalized. This is a potentially important clinical observation. Metformin has been recommended as the initial drug of choice for the treatment of type-2 diabetes (26). Metformin has been reported to cause a 20% incidence of diarrhea in diabetic patients taking the drug compared to only 6% of diabetic patients not taking metformin (27). In fact, diarrhea with metformin is a sufficient problem that some diabetic patients cannot tolerate the drug. Since metformin has a good safety record, causes an approximate 2-3 kg weight loss and is a low-cost generic medication, increasing the tolerance to metformin while increasing its efficacy using a safe food supplement could have beneficial public health consequences.

Acarbose is another drug used to treat diabetes that is associated with the side effect of a watery stool because of its mechanisms of action. If FORMULA A is used in conjunction with acarbose to treat type 2 diabetes, both better control of blood glucose and solid stool formation are expected.

Example 6

Human Study Utilizing either FORMULA A or a Placebo to Increase the Ratio of Gastrointestinal Microbiota in Phylum Bacteroidetes to Microbiota of Firmicutes Phylum and improve Symptoms of Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)

Subject and Methods

a) The required number of subjects are properly screened to fulfill the necessary qualifications,

b) appropriate laboratory evaluations are performed,

c) measures of positive primary and secondary outcome responses are recorded,

d) adverse events are documented, and

e) patients are adequately followed-up.

Overview

This randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial is expected to demonstrate the efficacy and tolerability of FORMULA A in diarrhea-predominant humans with IBS. Subjects assigned to consume FORMULA A but not a placebo, within 1 hour prior to consuming either meal 1 or meal 2, as well as within 1 hour prior to consuming meal 3 for 4 weeks:

1. Eliminate stool containing a greater ratio of microbiota species from the Bacteroidetes phylum to Firmicutes phylum, and

2. Report adequate relief for all 4 weeks, and

3. Report decreased urgency, and

4. Report decreased stool frequency, and

5. Have firm stools within 1 week of starting treatment,

General

In this study, subjects are randomly selected to consume 180 ml of either FORMULA A formula or placebo formula orally within 1 hour prior to ingestion of either meals 1 or 2 as well as within 1 hour prior to consumption of meal 3 each day. The subjects and experimenters are blinded to the treatment assignments. Placebo formula contains cellulose with food coloring and flavor to match the total dietary fiber content (8.75 g) of FORMULA A. Placebo is prepared by Merlin Development at the same time they prepare FORMULA A. Both formulations are coded by Merlin Development and the code is maintained with them as well as is held in confidence by a pharmacist at the study clinic until all data are collected at the end of study.

Subjects report weekly for measurements and assessment of any side effects. They are asked to collect a stool sample before initiating FORMULA A or Placebo intervention as well as at the end of the 4 week treatment period. During the screening, treatment, and follow-up periods, daily and weekly symptom data are collected using an interactive telephone-based system.

Pain and bowel function data are collected during the screening phase to ensure that patients had a suitable symptom level at study entry. Severity of pain and discomfort was assessed daily on a 5-point scale (0, none; 1, mild; 2, moderate; 3, intense; and 4, severe). Stool consistency data are monitored daily and scored as follows: 1, very hard; 2, hard; 3, formed; 4, loose; and 5, watery. Absence of stool was assigned a value of 0. Patients also record their IBS symptoms urgency (0%, feel no need to evacuate—100%, feel severe need to evacuate), stool frequency (# of stools per day), bloating (0, no sensation of extended abdomen; 1, mild; 2, moderate; 3, severe) and sense of incomplete evacuation (0, sensation of complete evacuation; 1, incomplete; 2, constipated) daily during the treatment and follow-up phases.

Subject Screening and Selection

Patients with IBS and a diarrhea-predominant bowel pattern aged 8 years or older are enrolled in this study if their symptoms fulfilled the Rome I criteria for IBS for at least 6 months. Patients undergo a 2-week screening evaluation to confirm sufficient level of pain and stool consistency before randomization. Since no objective criteria exist for subgrouping of IBS patients, physicians are asked to assess patients according to predominant pattern of bowel function based on the patient's disease history. Physicians are provided with a guideline based on the percentage of time the patient had experienced diarrhea. If diarrhea is present for >75% of the time, then the patient is classified as being diarrhea predominant.

Patients are excluded if they are pregnant, breastfeeding, or not using approved methods of contraception (if of child-bearing potential); if an unstable medical or other gastrointestinal condition exists; if there is a major psychiatric disorder or substance abuse within the previous 2 years; if an investigational drug was used within 30 days of the screening phase; or if a prohibited concurrent medication (likely to interfere with gastrointestinal tract function or analgesia) was used within 7 days before entering the screening phase.

Pain and bowel function data are collected during the screening phase to ensure that patients had a suitable symptom level at study entry as described above.

Appropriate Symptom and Laboratory Evaluation

Evaluations are performed at the screening of potential participants, at the beginning of the study, daily, and at the end of the 4 week treatment period.

-   -   1) Beginning of Study and Daily:         -   a) Severity of pain and discomfort is assessed on a 5-point             scale (0, none; 1, mild; 2, moderate; 3, intense; and 4,             severe).         -   b) Stool consistency data are scored as follows: 1, very             hard; 2, hard; 3, formed; 4, loose; and 5, watery. Absence             of stool was assigned a value of 0.         -   c) Urgency (0%, feel no need to evacuate—100%, feel severe             need to evacuate),         -   d) Stool frequency (# of stools per day)         -   e) Bloating (0, no sensation of extended abdomen; 1, mild;             2, moderate; 3, severe)         -   f) Sense of incomplete evacuation (0, sensation of complete             evacuation; 1, incomplete; 2, constipated)         -   g) Body weight.     -   2) Beginning of Study:     -   Stool is collected and stored frozen but not analyzed until the         end of study.     -   3) End of Study Assessment:     -   Analysis of the fecal microbiome DNA from both the initial         sample and the final sample.

Study Design

Subjects selected for participation are allowed an ad libitum diet. Foods excluded include alcohol. The subjects are encouraged to consume either FORMULA A or Placebo within 1 hour prior to 2 meals each day with ingestion of the test agent being mandatory prior to the 3^(rd) meal.

Subjects are given a 4 week supply of ether FORMULA A or Placebo at the onset and are instructed to consume the entire 180 ml volume containing either formula within 1 hour prior to either meals 1 and 2. as well as another 180 ml volume containing either formula within 1 hour prior to meal 3.

Subjects report weekly for measurements and assessment of IBS symptoms. During the screening and treatment periods, daily symptom data are collected using an interactive telephone-based system.

Outcome

-   -   This study is expected to demonstrate that FORMULA A and not         Placebo:     -   1) Increases the ratio of Bacteroidetes species to Firmicutes         species in fecal samples when samples at the end of study are         compared to samples at the onset of study;     -   2) Improves severity of pain and discomfort;     -   3) Increases stool consistency;     -   4) Decreases urgency to evacuate,     -   5) Decreases stool frequency;     -   6) Decreases bloating     -   7) Increases sense of complete evacuation.     -   Utilization of FORMULA A to treat idiopathic diarrhea such as a         parasitic infection, a viral infection and a symptomatic         response to a food is expected to also improve the severity of         pain and discomfort, increase stool consistency, decrease the         urgency to evacuate, decrease stool frequency, and decrease the         sensation of bloating.

Example 7

Case Report of FORMULA A Use in Fecal Bacteriotherapy

A 55 year old woman with chronic diarrhea that was associated with C. difficile infection initially presents to her primary care physician diarrhea of 8 months duration that originally started shortly following treatment with cephalosporin and quinolone antibiotics for back surgery and a pulmonary infection. During these eight months, she is repeatedly treated with metronidazole and vancomycin, and required several hospitalizations for intravenous hydration. The patient complains of loose small bowel movements every 15 minutes, accompanied by great urgency and rectal tenesmus. She wears diapers at times and loses 10% of her body weight. Flexible sigmoidoscopy demonstrates classic pseudomembranous colitis. Stool samples are positive for C. difficile toxins A and B, and stool culture confirms heavy growth of this bacterium. The patient is again treated with vancomycin, but fails to respond. She is subsequently prescribed nitazoxanide (2-acetyloxy-N-(5-nitro-2-thiazolyl)benzamide), 500 mg orally, twice daily. Ten days after discontinuation of Nitazoxanide, the patient has recurrence of her original diarrheal symptoms. Endoscopic analysis indicates return of pseudomembranous colitis, and stool studies art again positive for C. difficile. Despite two inure cycles of Nitazoxanide, including one lasting a full month, and continuous administration of Florastor, a probiotic containing Saccharomyces boulardii, the C. difficile-induced colitis reoccurrs.

Since conventional treatment fails to resolve the C. diff, fecal bacteriotherapy is offered to break the cycle of recurrences and achieve a potential cure. Informed consent is obtained from both the patient and the donor following discussion with each of the potential risks, benefits, and alternative options. The patient is maintained on Nitazoxanide until the day before the procedure. The patient's husband of 44 years (donor is prescribed FORMULA A 3 times a day for 2 weeks. Fecal donor material is taken from him, who has no risk factors for blood-borne communicable diseases, has no recent exposure to antibiotics, has no gastrointestinal symptoms of any kind, and tests negative for common stool pathogens and C. difficile. Bacteriotherapy is delivered into the patient's right colon by way of a colonoscopy. The patient is expected to have her first solid bowel movement on the second day following treatment. It is expected that her abdominal pain gradually subsides, and at one month following bacteriotherapy and it is expected that her stool samples will be negative for C. difficile. The patient is expected to commence FORMULA A twice a day. At six months follow-up, the patient is expected to report once-daily formed stools.

All measurements disclosed herein are at standard temperature and pressure, at sea level on Earth, unless indicated otherwise. All materials used or intended to be used in a human being are biocompatible, unless indicated otherwise.

The foregoing embodiments are presented by way of example only; the scope of the present invention is to be limited only by the following claims. 

The invention claimed is:
 1. A human gastrointestinal microbiome modulating composition for improving blood glucose regulation in a human in need thereof which has fewer than 200 usable Calories per therapeutic dose, comprising: a) at least about 3 g of isolated inulin, b) at least about 2 g of a purified β-glucan, and c) a berry pomace or a berry pomace extract; wherein each therapeutic dose comprises about 2-120 mg/kg of body weight of the berry pomace or the berry pomace extract.
 2. The composition of claim 1, wherein the composition comprises fewer than 70 usable Calories per therapeutic dose.
 3. The composition of claim 1, wherein the composition is formulated as a beverage suspension, powder, bar, smoothie, yogurt, shake, capsule, or tablet.
 4. The composition according to claim 1, wherein the berry pomace or the berry pomace extract is from a berry selected from the group consisting of blueberry, cranberry, raspberry, and strawberry.
 5. The composition according to claim 4, wherein the berry pomace or the berry pomace extract is from blueberry.
 6. The composition according to claim 1, wherein the berry pomace or the berry pomace extract comprises polyphenol compounds.
 7. The composition according to claim 6, wherein the polyphenol compounds are selected from the group consisting of anthocyanidins, flavonoids, cyanidin, delphinidin, malvidin, petunidin, anthocyanin, epicatechin, catechin, myricetin, quercetin, peonidin, epigallocatechin gallate, epigallocatechin, epicatechin gallate, epicatechin, gallocatechin gallate, gallocatechin, catechin gallate, malvidin 3-O-Galactoside, malvidin 3-O-Arabinoside, malvidin 3-O-Glucoside, delphinidin 3-O-Arabinoside, delphinidin 3-O-Galactoside, Delphinidin 3-O-Glucoside, petunidin 3-O-Galactoside, petunidin 3-O-Arabinoside, petunidin 3-O-Glucoside, peonidin chloride, cyanidin 3-O-Arabinoside, peonidin 3-O-Glucoside, cyanidin 3-O-Glucoside, delphinidin Chloride, peonidin 3-O-Arabinoside, peonidin 3-O-Galactoside, petunidin chloride, cyanidin chloride, cyanidin 3-O-Galactoside, cyanidin 3-O-Rutinoside, malvidin chloride, and combinations thereof.
 8. The composition according to claim 7, wherein the polyphenol compounds comprise anthocyanidins.
 9. The composition according to claim 7, wherein the polyphenol compounds comprise flavonoids.
 10. The composition according to claim 1, wherein the inulin is present in an amount of 4-40% by weight.
 11. The composition according to claim 1, wherein the β-glucan is present in an amount of 3.5-14% by weight.
 12. The composition according to claim 6, wherein the polyphenol compounds are present in an amount of 1-6% by weight.
 13. The composition of claim 1, wherein the composition comprises fewer than 100 usable Calories per dose.
 14. The composition of claim 1, wherein the composition comprises fewer than 150 usable Calories per therapeutic dose.
 15. A method of improving blood glucose regulation in a human in need thereof, the method comprising administering to the human in need the composition according to claim
 1. 16. The method according to claim 15, wherein the composition is administered to the human in need at least once per day.
 17. The method according to claim 15, wherein the human in need is a diabetic.
 18. The method according to claim 15, wherein the human in need has Type I diabetes.
 19. The method according to claim 15, wherein the human in need has Type II diabetes. 